The World is my Country; Science is my Religion

For millennia humans were thought to be unique from other species, even separate from them. Beginning in the 19th century, this view started to come into serious doubt as other human like fossils were being discovered. On August 3, 1908, one of the most important discoveries on paleoanthropology occurred when researchers unearthed a nearly complete Neanderthal skeleton in a cave system at La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France. The site is near Lascaux, famous for its cave paintings, and lies in a valley that would later bear the name of the Neanderthal species.

The skeleton belonged to a Neanderthal male, aged around 40, who lived nearly 60,000 years ago. This find was significant because compared to earlier skeletons, this one was nearly complete, allowing the opportunity to reconstruct the full anatomy of an ancient human species. It quickly became one of the most studied remains on the planet. Unfortunately, the initial interpretation was flawed, suggesting Neanderthals were a slow, stooped, and unintelligent species. Later research showed the individual suffered from severe arthritis at a late age, which distorted his posture. Healthy Neanderthals stood fully upright, walked much like modern humans, crafted sophisticated stone tools, controlled fire, hunted large animals, cared for injured members of their communities, and may have created symbolic art and buried their dead.

The discovery at La Chapelle-aux-Saints marked another step in one of science’s greatest revelations: humans are not separate from nature – we are part of it. Our story is intertwined with countless other species, including extinct human relatives that lived, hunted, and adapted alongside our ancestors. Rather than existing apart from the rest of life, we now understand that we are the product of millions of years of evolution, sharing a common ancestry not only with Neanderthals but with every living organism on Earth.

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Every so often a medical breakthrough can be credited with saving millions of lives. Prior to 1922, a diagnosis of Type 1 diabetes was practically a death sentence, with nearly 100% of children dying within a few months to years of diagnosis. The discovery and isolation of insulin by Canadian surgeon Frederick Banting and medical student Charles Best on July 27, 1921 changed that reality, resulting in a revolutionary medical breakthrough.

Banting and Best were working in a laboratory at the University of Toronto under the guidance of J. R. Macleod, where for months they had been experimenting with extracts from the pancreas. They knew the pancreas contain a substance capable of regulating blood sugar, and after painstaking work, they succeeded in extracting insulin from a healthy dog to treat another dog with diabetes. The next step was to treat diabetes in humans. On January 11, 1922, a 14-year-old boy was the first person to receive and insulin injection to treat diabetes. After some initial adjustments and with the help of biochemist James Collip, the boys’ condition improved. Within a few years, insulin was being produced on a large scale, transforming diabetes from a fatal disease into a manageable condition.

By 1923, insulin was being used around the world and Banting and Macleod were awarded the Noble Prize in Physiology and Medicine. Banting shared his prize money with Best and Macleod shared his prize money with Collip, recognizing the collaborative process. More than a century later, insulin continues to save millions of lives every day. 

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Humans are a social species, and communication has always shaped the course of history. The development of language sets us apart from all other species. Over the millennia, communication has expanded to include smoke signals, writing, the telegraph and the telephone, with each advance in technology transforming the scale at which we communicate. On July 26, 1963, another milestone was reached when NASA launched Syncom 2 – the world’s first geosynchronous communications satellite.

Before satellites, long distance communication relied on underwater cables and networks of land-based radio stations. Satellites orbiting high about the Earth provided a better engineering solution. Orbiting approximately 22,300 miles above the Earth’s surface, Syncom 2 was the second of three experimental satellites, however it had a special distinction. It was the first geosynchronous satellite, meaning it matched the Earths 24-hour orbit, allowing it to remain fixed over a specific location. Syncom 2 successfully transmitted telephone signals and other communications, demonstrating that satellite technology worked.

In 1963, President John F. Kennedy telephoned the Nigerian Prime Minister, Abubakar Balewa, in the first two-way call between heads of states by satellite. The success of Syncom 2 paved the way for all future satellite telecommunications including GPS, the internet, and global television broadcasting. Today we take all of these communications for granted, a reminder of how seamlessly integrated scientific advancements can become integrated into modern society.

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The discovery of DNA’s double helix structure ranks among the most important achievements in the history of science. It transformed our understanding of the biology, medicine, and genetics. Unfortunately, history doesn’t always recognize scientific contributions equally. Rosalind Franklin, born on July 25th, 1920, used her extraordinary skill as an X-ray crystallographer to produce some key evidence that helped to reveal the structure of DNA.

Working at King’s College London in the early 1950s, Franklin used X-ray diffraction to produce some of the clearest images ever taken of the DNA molecule. The process was meticulous, involving precision in preparing the DNA, shining the X-rays through the DNA, recording the diffraction pattern, and interpreting the pattern mathematically. Among her images is the famous Photo-51 that provided vital mathematical clues that DNA is a double helix. This photo was shown to James Watson by Maurice Wilkins without Franklin’s knowledge or permission, and Watson and James Crick used the data to develop their double helix model. Initially her role discovering the structure of DNA was underappreciated, but it is now widely recognized that her research was vital to the discovery.

Franklin’s legacy extends beyond the discovery of the structure of DNA. Her work exemplifies the very essence of science: careful observation, rigorous experimentation, and letting the evidence speak for itself. Although her recognition came slowly, she now claims her rightful place among the pioneers of molecular biology.

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Sometimes the best discoveries in science are not new but are rediscoveries of an ancient piece of human civilization. On July 24, 1911, the ancient Incan city of Machu Picchu was found by Hiram Bigham’s expedition. Its rediscovery opened a new chapter in the study of one of the world’s greatest civilizations.

Bingham began his exploration in the Sacred Valley of the Incas. He was looking for the last capital city of the Incas, Vilcabamba, often called the Lost City of the Incas. Guided by locals, his expedition visited several Incan sites and he actually visited ruins near Vilcabamba however he failed to identify it as the Incan Capital. Continuing onward, Bringham eventually camped near the base of a steep, jungle covered mountain. On the morning of July 24, he began the steep and difficult climb where he was guided to an astonishing city of finely cut stones, hidden among the clouds. Before him stood Machu Picchu, however he mistakenly concluded that he had discovered Vilcabamba.

Over the following years, Bingham organized several more expeditions to map, excavate and photograph Machu Picchu. Beneath the think vegetation that had grown over the centuries were terraces, temples, plazas, and homes. It was an engineering marvel containing structures of precisely fitting stones without mortar, carefully designed terraces, and advanced agricultural and drainage systems. The site served as a royal estate for a few Incan Emperors, his court, priests, and servants that was visited seasonally. It was built around 1450 by the Emperor Pachacuti. The rediscovery of the site transformed our understanding of the Incas, preserving the sophistication of the civilization prior to European contact.

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When searching for life in the universe, many scientists look for other worlds that may be similar to Earth – in size and in distance from a star. On July 23, 2015, NASA announced such a made such a discovery when they announced Kepler-452b, the first confirmed Earth size planet discovered within the habitable zone of a Sun-like star.

Kepler-452b was discovered using data from NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope, which searches for planets by detecting the tiny dimming of a star’s light as the planet passes in front of it. This method has allowed astronomers identify thousands of exoplanets, revolutionizing our view and understanding of the universe. The planets is located in the constellation Cyngus and is approximately 1,800 light years away from Earth.  It is around 60% larger than our planet, has an orbital distance of 1.04 AU from it star, and completes one orbit every 385 days. It is currently unknown whether the planet has oceans, an atmosphere, or contains life. 

The discovery of Kepler-452b showed that our planet and our solar system is not an extraordinary exception. We now believe that across the Milky Way there are many stars with orbiting planets that could possess to conditions suitable for life. 

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For most of human history, traveling long distances has been arduous and slow. Only a little over 500 years ago, Christopher Columbus’s first trans-Atlantic voyage to America took around 36 days. But as science and engineering advanced, the world shrank. On July 22, 1933, aviator Wiley Post demonstrated this fact by becoming the first solo pilot the fly around the world. He accomplished his mission in 7 days, 18 hours, and 49 minutes.

Wiley Post began his journey from Floyd Bennett Field in New York on July 15. He piloted a Lockhead Vega airplane named Winnie Mae through eight countries and across two oceans before returning to New York on July 22. Solo flying meant that there was no co-piolet to assist with navigation, monitoring the airplane, or help out during potential emergency situations. 

His achievement was made possible by remarkable advances in science and technology. Radio communication, light-weight materials, improved aircraft engines, and more accurate navigational instruments allowed piolets to fly further and more safely than ever before. His flight proved that global flight was no longer an impossible adventure, but a practical reality. The ever-improving aviation technologies would lead to modern commercial air travel, connecting billions of people around the world.

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The history of science is filled with moments when new scientific discoveries collided and contradicted with long held religious beliefs. In many instances, science and religion have offered competing ways of explaining the natural world, beginning with Copernicus placing the Sun in the center of the Solar System. One of the most contentious areas of disagreement is in the origin of species, with science championing Charles Darwins Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection and religious fundamentalism championing Creationism. On July 21, 1925, that conflict came to a head during the Scopes “Monkey Trial,” when high school biology teacher John T. Scopes was found guilty of violating the Butler Act in Tennessee by teaching that humans evolved from earlier species.

The case drew nationwide attention in what became showdown between science and religion. Hundreds of journalist covered the courtroom proceedings and it become one of the first cases to be broadcast over the radio, fueling the national spectacle it was rapidly becoming. Arguing for the prosecution was William Jennings Bryan, a three-time presidential candidate and outspoken Christian fundamentalist. Clarence Darrow, a celebrated trial attorney with a passion for free inquiry, represented John Scopes.

Scopes was ultimately found guilty and fined $100, although the conviction was later reversed on a legal technicality. The Butler Law as eventually repealed by the state of Tennessee in 1967, and the following year the Supreme Court ruled that banning the teaching of evolution is unconstitutional. The verdict against John Scopes did not stop the progress of evolutionary science. Over the following century, discoveries in genetics, molecular biology, and paleontology provided overwhelming evidence for evolution, making it the foundation of modern biology.

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Aside from the Sun, the Moon was the most mysterious and influential object in the sky. It was more than a celestial object who illuminated the nights; it was the inspiration for many gods and myths, it guided calendars and its predictable cycles symbolized time, change, birth and death, and fertility. For nearly all of history, idea that a human being would ever set foot on the moon seemed beyond imagination. But history has shown as that as scientific knowledge advances the boundaries of what is possible continue to expand.

On July 20, 1969, the Apollo 11 mission achieved the impossible, landing the first humans on the Moons surface in one of the most remarkable accomplishments in human history. The journey to the Moon took the team of Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins three days. As they entered the moon’s orbit, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin guided the Lunar Module Eagle down towards the moon, while Michael Collins stayed in orbit in the Command Module Columbia. The Eagle landed in the Sea of Tranquility with the words “Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed.” A few hours later Neil Armstrong descended onto the lunar surface and spoke the famous words “One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.”

The Apollo 11 mission represents one of the most remarkable scientific achievements in all of human history. It was the culmination of centuries of scientific discoveries – beginning with Newton’s Laws of motion and gravity to modern advancements in mathematics, physics, material science, computing, and rocket science. The Apollo 11 mission reminds us of what can be achieved through the remarkable power of the scientific method.

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For most of human history, navigation required using the stars, landmarks, or maps. Only recently did a breakthrough in satellite navigation, knows as the Global Positioning System (GPS), render those methods obsolete. Today’s GPS is a highly precise system for measuring both position and time that began with a series experimental missions, including the first successful GPS transmission on July 19,1977.

On that day, the Navigation Technology Satellite-2 (NTS-2), recently launched from Vandenburg Air Force Base on June 23, 1977, successfully transmitted the first GPS signal from space. It was received at a building of the Rockwell-Collins company in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. The successful test proved that highly accurate positioning could be achieved by combining precisely timed signals from multiple satellites. The satellites and technology were developed by the US Department of Defense for military operations. As with many technologies developed by the DoD, it gradually made its way into civilian use to transform everyday life.

The GPS system today contains a network of around 30 satellites orbiting roughly 12,500 miles above Earth. Each satellite continuously broadcasts its exact location and the precise time the signal was sent, using extremely accurate atomic clocks. A GPS receiver listens for signals from multiple satellites, and by measuring how long each signal takes to arrive, it calculates the distance. Using a mathematical process called triangulation, the receiver can determine the latitude, longitude and even the current time. The GPS system has become one of the most useful tools, demonstrating how fundamental discoveries in physics and engineering can reshape how the world moves.

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